1.HINTS ON TAKING "OPEN BOOK AND NOTES" TESTS:
a. Study as if it were a closed book test. You do not have time to look up each answer.
b. Carefully read the Chapter Summary, try to do the Conceptual Questions, and know the meaning of all the Key Terms at the back of each chapter.
c. Don't forget the index or the glossary.
d. Read the test questions carefully!
e. Go through the test once and answer all of the questions that you can. Then go back and do the other questions.
f. Mark on the test booklet: cross off obviously wrong answers, work the problems, and show your work. Circle the answer on the test booklet - that is the last resort if you have made a mistake on the answer sheet.
g. Carefully darken in the answer on the answer sheet, do not rip, mutilate, or fold it.
h. Check your answer sheet. Make sure you have answered all 50 questions.
i. MAKE SURE THAT YOUR NAME IS ON THE ANSWER SHEET AND YOU HAVE PUT IN YOUR FULL UNIVERSITY ID NUMBER-LEFT JUSTIFIED. NOTE THAT BOTH YOUR NAME AND ID # GO ON THE BACK! I will subtract points if this is not done.
BRING A PICTURE ID. I WILL ASK YOU TO PLACE IT ON THE TABLE IN FRONT OF YOU AND I WILL GO AROUND THE CLASS DURING THE EXAM CHECKING EACH ID.

Chapter 7. Starlight and Atoms.
1. The temperature of a gas is a measure of the average speed of the particles in the gas.
2. Look back at the temperature scales in your notes. I did this early in the semester.
3. The key concept about thermal emitters (I did not call them black-bodies in class) is that they emit radiation in a pattern that depends only on their temperature not their surfaces. Ignore reflection.
4. Peak wavelength, which I use in class, is the same as wavelength of maximum emission.
5. Look at Figure 7-2 in order to understand the three laws of thermal emission. Know the three rules as given in class. He leaves out the first one: That a hotter thermal emitter emits more energy at every wavelength than a cooler thermal emitter.
6. What is the Stefan-Boltzmann Law? Wien's Law? How can we use Wien's Law to determine at what wavelength a thermal emitter radiates most strongly.? The value of the constant given in class is 5000 * 6000 because I use Angstroms not nanometers.
7. Color Index is a measure of the Color of the star - red is cool and blue is hot..
8. Remember the structure of an atom (nucleus with protons and neutrons plus electron cloud orbiting the nucleus)
9. What is meant by neutral, ionized, electron shells. Remember that all normal matter consists of atoms. Each atom consists of a nucleus with electron(s) in orbit around the nucleus. The nucleus consists of proton(s) and neutron(s). Know what is meant by atomic number and atomic weight. What is an isotope? How are the chemical elements labeled?
10. The Coulomb force binds the electrons to the nucleus.
11. The various orbits around the nucleus are called energy levels because it takes energy to move away from the nucleus or the atom must give up energy for the electron to jump back toward the nucleus. Remember that only certain energies (distances from the nucleus) are permitted.
12. What is an excited atom? Ground state?
13. Know Kirchhof's Laws as shown in Table 7-1 on page 132 and Figure 7-11 on page 133: (1) A hot solid or dense gas produces a continuous spectrum. (2) A low density excited or hot gas produces a bright, emission line spectrum. (3) Put a low density gas in front of a continuous spectrum and you get a continuous spectrum with dark, absorption lines superimposed.
14. I used a baseball analogy to try to make this clear. Remember the pitcher (light source), catcher (detector), hitter (atom), and fielder (detector oriented in another direction) and how they relate to emission and absorption.
15. Know emission and absorption lines and where and how they are formed.
16. Review the hydrogen spectrum and the details of figure 7-12. What is a transition?
17. Know the Spectral Sequence. Note that I described two new spectral classes: L and T.
18. What property of a star is changing as the spectral class changes?
19. Look at the digital spectra in figure 7-17. Watch how the slope changes and the features appear and disappear.
20. What is the Doppler Effect or Doppler Shift. Know how to use it to determine the speed of an object. How can we use it to tell whether an object is moving toward or away from us? What is meant by a blue shift? A red shift?
21. Review the way we used the Doppler effect in class. Look at problems 9 and 10.
Chapter 8. The Sun
Know the data on Page 147
1. What are the photosphere, chromosphere, corona?
2. What is granulation? What is it telling us about heat flow from the interior? How long does a granule last?
3. What is convection? Conduction? Radiation?
4. What is supergranulation? Spicules are found at the edges of supergranules.
5. What do we learn from Limb Darkening?
6. How far does the Corona extend into space? How hot is the corona? What is the solar wind? What is the speed of the solar wind at the Earth's distance from the Sun?
7. Helioseismology is the study of the interior of the Sun using the Sun's oscillations in radius. We can study the interior of the sun just as ringing a bell tells us how the bell is made.
8. What are sunspots? Why do they appear dark? Which part is the Umbra? The Penumbra? Note that they are located in Active Regions.
9. Skip the Zeeman effect. How does the polarity (N or S pole) of sunspots change over the solar cycles.?
10. How long is the solar sunspot cycle?
11. How long is the solar magnetic cycle?
12. When was the Maunder minimum?
13. What is the Butterfly diagram and what does it tell us (Figure 8-13)?
14. What is a Prominence, what is a Flare? Look at the pictures on page 161. Note the strength of the shock-wave.
15. What is ejected from Coronal Holes?
16. Is there any evidence for a Solar-Terrestrial Climate link?
17. What were some of the early ideas about the source of the Sun's energy. How did we know they were wrong?
18. Where does the energy from the sun come from? Why do we know that it must be nuclear energy?
19. Binding energy is the energy that keeps the protons and neutrons in the nucleus from flying apart.
20. Nuclear Fusion requires high temperatures and high densities to overcome the Coulomb barrier. (Like charges repel)
21.What is the proton-proton chain? Who first proposed it in 1938 (and is still around publishing).
22. What is a neutrino? How is energy released in the proton-proton chain? Deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen.
23. How does the energy flow from the center to the surface? What are convection, conduction, radiation?
24. What is the difference between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. Which is most important in current nuclear power plants?
25. What does the solar neutrino experiment tell us? What are the most recent results: Discussed in class.
Chapter 9: The Family of Stars
1. The distances to nearby stars are determined by the use of the parallax method. What is the parallax of a star and how is it measured. Remember the relationship between distance and parallax is an inverse relationship.
2. What is a parsec? How is it defined? What is the abbreviation (pc)? How many light years in a parsec?
3. What are the limits of the parallax method?
4. What is the proper motion of a star? How is it measured? Why do we need both distance and proper motion to determine the speed of a star across the line-of-sight?
5. What is meant by the apparent magnitude of a star? It was defined in chapter 2 on page 12 and 13.
6. What is the absolute magnitude of a star? I also spent some time in class defining these terms and showing how they are related.73. 7. The inverse square law of light is used in this section. It is defined only on page 82. It is important and I spent some time on it in class. Remember that it means that the brightness of a star decreases as the square of the distance.
8. Know the definition of distance modulus - be familiar with table 9-1.
9. What is meant by the luminosity and surface temperature of a star?
10. What is the relationship between luminosity, radius, and temperature of a star? How is it obtained?
11. Make sure that you understand the examples on page 178 - I did some others in class. We can use the equation on this page to determine the radius of a star. Or, if it is an eclipsing binary (see next chapter) and we know the radius, then the temperature.
12. THE HERTZPRUNG-RUSSELL Diagram: Why is it important? What do we learn from it? Why do we use it to study stellar clusters?
13. What is the Main Sequence? Where is the Sun located in this diagram? What do H and R stand for? What is actually being plotted?
14. Where do most of the stars fall in this diagram? What is the physical significance of the Main Sequence? Region where stars are fusing H to He in their cores.
15. Where do the red giants and white dwarfs fall in the diagram?
16. What is the Luminosity Classification of the Sun? Why do we need a Luminosity Classification?
17. How does the main sequence lifetime of a star vary with mass and luminosity? Which stars live the longest? The shortest?
18. What is Spectroscopic parallax?
19.Look at Figure 9-15. Why are there so many more red dwarfs in the solar neighborhood than O stars or B stars?
20. Why is there a difference in the two HR diagrams shown in Figure 9-16?
21. Can you do problem 1 on p. 187? You should be able to do some of the numbers in problem 3.
Chapter 10. Binary Stars
1. What are the various kinds of binaries? What is meant by an eclipsing binary? A Spectroscopic binary? A Visual binary?
2. Look at Kepler's Laws on Page 71. You will need to know his third law (as adjusted by Newton) for this Chapter.
3. What are the units of P, a, M in Kepler's adjusted third law?
4. What one word describes astrometric binaries? (Given in class - if you missed class you are out of luck)
5. Why do visual binaries have such long periods as compared to spectroscopic binaries or eclipsing binaries?
6. What complicates using the observed orbit of a visual binary to determine the mass: look at figure 10-3.
7. Would you ask a graduate student to determine the orbit of Sirius in order to get a Ph.D.? Why not?
8. The center of mass of a binary system is directly analogous to the fulcrum that supports the plank in a see-saw.
9. What changes when we are observing a spectroscopic binary? Why do the same lines first blue shift and then red shift?
10. The best kind are double-line spectroscopic binaries that also eclipse. They are not very common.
11. Look at the critical inquiry on page 199.
12. What is the MOST important thing we can learn from an eclipsing binary?
13. Algol systems are dull.
14. Some astronomers study binaries only to determine their masses, radii, and densities. They are dull too (the astronomers not the stars).
15. Figure 10-23 shows us that more luminous stars are more massive. That is why they have shorter lives. If the sun were more massive we would not be here and you would not be reading this.
Chapter 11: The Interstellar Medium
1. What is the evidence that there is gas between the stars: Emission nebulae, absorption lines, forbidden lines, HII regions.
2. What is the evidence that there is dust between the stars: extinction, reddening, reflection nebulae, dark clouds, Bok globules, dark clouds.
3. Remember that absorption lines from cool gas clouds are much narrower than absorption lines in stars.
4. Why is the Sky Blue during the day? For the same reasons, reflection nebulae are blue and light from distant stars is reddened and dimmed (extinction).
5. HI clouds contain neutral gas and they are cold.
6. The Intercloud medium - stuff between the cold clouds - is hotter but has a lower density.
7. Figure 11-7 shows that dust is much more important for short wavelength photons than for long wavelength photons.
8. We observe the presence of hydrogen gas using the 21-cm radio line. 21-cm is the wavelength, the frequence is 1420 MHZ. It is emitted when the electron in the atom flips the direction of its magnetic field.
9. We can see through the entire Galaxy at 21 cm and so we have mapped the galaxy in hydrogen.
10. Look at table 11-1 to see what molecules are present in space. There is lots of ethyl alcohol.
11. An important component of the ISM are the Giant Molecular Clouds which contain a lot of material. These are related to star formation. The nearest GMC is the Orion Nebula.
12. We can observe the presence of dust because it glows in the infrared.
13. The Hot gas emits in X-rays.
14. Observations with the FUSE satellite - launched in 1999 - show that molecular hydrogen fills the ISM.
15. Be familiar with Table 11-2.
16. I showed pictures of the local bubble in class.
17.The ISM consists of gas and dust which have been expelled from previous generations of stars and will then go to form new stars.